BEFORE treating a sick man it is essential to discover the cause of his ailment. The efficacy of the treatment depends on the removal of the cause.   The Buddha discourses on suffering but goes a step further and points out the arising of suffering thus administering an efficacious cure. The hasty critic, therefore, is not justified in label­ling the Buddha a pessimist. The optimist will be pleased to hear that in the exposition of the Four Noble Truths there is a way out of the 'pessimism'. What then, according to the teaching of the Buddha, is the Noble Truth of the arising of suffering?

As there is no arbitrary creator who controls the destinies of man in Buddhist thought, Buddhism does not attribute suffering or the arising of suffering to an external agency, to 'supernatural' power, but seeks it in the innermost recesses of man himself. In the first sermon of the Buddha and in many another discourse in the early scriptures, the second Noble Truth is formulated in the following words:

It is this craving ('thirst', tanha 1) which causes re-becoming, re­birth, accompanied by passionate pleasure, and finding fresh delight now here, now there, namely, craving for sense pleasures (kama-tanha), craving for continued existence, for becoming (bhava-tanha), and craving for non-existence, for self-annihilation (vibhava-tanha).

Thus it is clear that suffering is the effect of craving which is the cause. Here we see seed and fruit, action and reaction, cause and effect, a reign of natural law, and this is no great mystery, Now this most powerful force, this mental factor, craving or 'thirst', keeps existence going. It makes and remakes the world. Life depends on the desires of life.       It is the motive force behind not only the present existence, but past and future existence, too. The present is the result of the past, and the future will be the result of the present. This is a process of conditionality. This force is compared to a river (tanha-nadi) ; for like a river that when in flood submerges villages, suburbs, towns and countries, craving flows on con­tinuously through re-existence and re-becoming. Like fuel that keeps the fire burning, the fuel of craving keeps the fire of existence alive.

The Buddha says: `Monks, I do not see any other single fetter bound by which beings for a long, long time wander and hurry through the round of existence, like this fetter of craving (tanha samyojanam). Truly, monks, bound by this fetter of craving, beings do wander and hurry through the round of existence. 2

It is important to understand that craving here is not regarded as the First Cause with a capital Wand a capital 'C'; for according to Buddhism there is no 'First Cause', but beginningless causes and effects and naught else ruling the universe. Things are neither due to one single cause nor are they causeless, but as explained in the formula of Dependent Arising things are multiple-caused. Craving, like all other things, physical or mental, is also conditioned, interdependent and relative. It is neither a beginning nor an end in itself. Though craving is cited as the proximate cause of suffering, it is not independent, but interdependent. Dependent on feeling or sensation arises craving, feeling arises dependent on contact and so fort. 3  The following dialogue explains the standpoint of the Buddha regarding the arising of suffering:

Once a certain ascetic named Kassapa questioned the Buddha thus: 4

- Now then, Venerable Gotama, is suffering self-wrought?
- Not so, verily, Kassapa.
- What then, Venerable Gotama, is suffering wrought by another?
- Not so, verily, Kassapa.
- What then, Venerable Gotama, is suffering wrought both by one's self and by another?
- Not so, verily, Kassapa.
- What then, Venerable Gotama, is suffering wrought neither by one's self nor by another, arisen without cause (due to purely fortuitous circumstances, adhicca samuppanna) ?
- Not so, verily, Kassapa.
- Well then, Venerable Gotama, is suffering non-existent (is there no suffering)?
- Surely, Kassapa, suffering is not non-existent. Suffering is.
- Then the Venerable Gotama neither knows nor sees suffering.
- Nay, Kassapa, I am not one who neither knows nor sees suffering; I am one who knows suffering and sees suffering.
- How now, Venerable Gotama, you have answered all my ques­tions, as `not so, verily, Kassapa'. You affirm that suffering is, and that you know and see suffering. May the Venerable Gotama teach me what suffering is?
- The statement, Kassapa, that one and the same person produces and experiences suffering amounts to the Eternalist Theory (sassatavada). To say that, `one produces and another experiences suffering', this, Kassapa, which to one afflicted with feeling occurs as suffering wrought by another, amounts to the Annihi­lationist Theory (uccheda vada). The Tathagata, Kassapa, avoi­ding these two extremes teaches the Dhamma by the Median Path: `Dependent on ignorance (of the true nature of existence), arise volitional or karma formations.

‘Dependent on volitional-formations, arises (rebirth) conscious­ness.
Dependent on consciousness, arises mentality-materiality (men­tal and physical combination).
Dependent on mentality-materiality, arises the sixfold base (the five physical sense organs with consciousness as the sixth).
Dependent on the sixfold bases arises contact.
Dependent on contact, arises feeling.
Dependent on feeling, arises craving. Dependent on craving, arises clinging.
Dependent on clinging, arises the process of becoming.
Dependent on the process of becoming, arise ageing and death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair. 5 Thus does this whole mass of suffering arise,' the anuloma paticca samuppada. (This is called the Noble Truth of the Arising of Suffering or dukkha.)

`Through the entire cessation of ignorance cease volitional formations; through the cessation of volitional formations, con­sciousness... (and so on). Thus does this whole mass of suffer­ing cease', the patiloma paticca samuppada. 6 (This is called the Noble Truth of the Cessation of Suffering.)

Kassapa, being convinced by this exposition of the doctrine, took refuge in the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha, entered the Order, and later became one of the Arahats. 7

Thus this doctrine of Dependent Arising, in its direct order, makes plain how suffering arises due to causes and conditions, and how suffering ceases with the removal of its causes and con­ditions.

How the Buddha himself expressed this appears in the Anguttara Nikaya:

`And what, monks, is the Noble Truth of the Arising of Suffering? Dependent on ignorance arise volitional formations; dependent on volitional formations, consciousness... (and so on)...... Thus does this whole mass of suffering arise. This, monks, is called the Noble Truth of the Arising of Suffering.

'And what, monks, is the Noble Truth of the Path leading to the Cessation of Suffering? Through the complete cessation of ignorance cease volitional formations; through the cessation of volitional formations, consciousness... (and so on) the whole mass of suffering. This, monks, is called "the Cessation of Suffering". 8

It is now quite clear that Dependent Arising (paticca-samuppada) is an essential corollary to the second and third of the Four Noble Truths, and is not, as some are inclined to think, a later addition to the teachings of the Buddha.

This Dependent Arising, this doctrine of conditionality, is often explained in severely practical terms, but it is not a mere prag­matical teaching, though it may appear to be so, owing to the shortness of the explanations. Those conversant with the Buddhist Canon (Tipitaka) know that in the doctrine of Dependent Arising is found that which brings out the basic principles of knowledge (nana) and wisdom (panna) in the Dhamma. In this teaching of the conditionality of everything in the world, that is the five aggregates, can be realized the essence of the Buddha's outlook on life. So if the Buddha's explanation of the world is to be rightly understood, it has to be through a full grasp of the  central teaching summed up in the dictum :  'Ye dhamma hetuppabhava...'   (Whatsoever things proceed from a cause...) referred to above. 9

When the cause and condition of a thing is removed, so does the effect cease. Following the Buddha's doctrine of conditionality, this idea is pithily expressed by Sister Sela, well known for her deep knowledge of the Dhamma, in this verse:

`Not-self-wrought is this puppet form,
Nor other-wrought this mass of woe;
Condition-based it comes to be,
Condition-ceased it endeth, lo.' 10

As we saw above, `Not so, verily, Kassapa, not so, verily, Kassapa' was the Buddha's answer to Kassapa's question: 'Is suffering self-­wrought or wrought by another?' The answer clearly shows that the Buddha disapproves of both the self-agency (that suffering is caused solely by self) and the external agency (that suffering is caused solely by other than the self).

To say that suffering is solely due to the individual's own agency (sayamkara) is meaningless; for he is in the environment of the sentient world of beings and surely that environment influences him in diverse ways.   To say that man's action, his behaviour, is solely determined by external agency (para-kara) is also equally meaningless; for then man's moral responsibility and freedom of will is denied. The Buddha's doctrine of the middle path, Depen­dent Arising, which avoids the two extremes, explains that all dhammas, things or phenomena, are causally dependent on one another and interrelated.

This conditionality goes on uninterrupted and uncontrolled by self-agency or external agency of any sort. The doctrine of con­ditionality (idhappaccayata) cannot be labelled as determinism, because in this teaching both the physical environment and the moral causation (psychological causation) of the individual function together. The physical world influences man's mind, and mind, on the other hand, influences the physical world, obviously in a higher degree, for as the Buddha says: `the world is led by the mind' (cittena niyati lako). 11 

If we fail to understand the real significance and application to life of the Dependent Arising, we mistake it for a mechanical law of causality or even a simple simultaneous arising, a first beginning of all things, animate and inanimate. As there is no origination out of nothing in Buddhist thought, Dependent Arising shows the impossibility of a first cause. The first beginning of existence, of the life stream of living beings is inconceivable and as the Buddha says: `Notions and speculations concerning the world (loka-cinta) may lead to mental derangement.' 12 'O  monks, this wheel of existence, this cycle of continuity (samsara) is without a visible end, and the first beginning of beings wandering and hurrying round, wrapt in ignorance (avijja) and fettered by craving (tanha) is not to be perceived. 13

It is, in fact, impossible to conceive of a first beginning. None can trace the ultimate origin of anything, not even of a grain of sand, let alone of human beings. It is useless and meaningless to seek a beginning in a beginningless past. Life is not an identity, it is a becoming.     It is a flux of physiological and psychological changes.

If one posits a first cause one is justified in asking for: the cause of that 'First Cause', for nothing can escape the law of condition and cause which is patent in the world to all but those who will not see. A theist, however, who attributes beings and events to an omni­potent Creator-God would emphatically say: 'It is God's will, it is sacrilege to question the Authority.' Does not this God-idea stifle the human liberty to investigate, to analyse, to scrutinize, to see what is beyond this naked eye, and so retards insight?

Let us grant that 'X' is the 'first cause’. Now does this assump­tion bring us one bit nearer to our deliverance? Does it not close the door to it? We see a natural law--beginningless causes and effects--and naught else ruling the universe.

As explained in the Dependent Arising the proximate cause of craving is feeling or sensation. Craving has its source, its rise in feeling.

All forms of appetite are included in tanha (craving). Greed, thirst, desire, lust, burning, yearning, longing, inclination, affection, household love are some of the many terms that denote tanha which in the word of the Buddha leads to becoming (bhava-netti). Becom­ing, which manifests itself as dukkha, as suffering, frustration, painful excitement, unsatisfactoriness, is our own experience.

The enemy of the whole world is lust, craving, or thirst through which all evils come to living beings. It is not only greed for or attachment to pleasures caused by the senses, wealth and property and by the wish to defeat others and conquer countries, but also attachment to ideals and ideas, to views, opinions and beliefs (dhamma-tanha) which often lead to calamity and destruction and bring untold suffering to whole nations, in fact to the whole world.

Now where does this craving arise and take root? Where there is delight and pleasure, there craving arises and takes root. What are delightful and pleasurable? The eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind are delightful and pleasurable, because it is through these avenues, these fivefold bases, that man cognizes the sense objects, the external world, and through the mind door, as the sixth, entertains ideas and thoughts.     These craving arises and takes root.       Forms, sounds, smells, tastes, bodily contacts and ideas are delightful and pleasurable and there craving arises and takes root. 14  Man is always attracted by the pleasant and the delightful, and in his search for pleasure, he runs after the five kinds of sense objects; cognizes ideas and clings to them. He little realizes that no amount of forms, sounds, smells, tastes, tangibles and mental objects or ideas will ever satisfy the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind. Beings in their intense thirst for either possession or the satisfaction of desires, become bound to the wheel of existence, are twisted and torn between the spokes of agony, and securely close the door to final deliverance. The Buddha was most emphatic against this mad rush, and warned:

`Pleasure is a bond, a joy that's brief,
Of little taste, leading to drawn-out pain.
The wise know that the hook is baited.' 15

The poet only echoes the Buddha's words when he writes:

`Pleasures are like poppies spread,
You seize the flower, its bloom is shed;
Or, like the snow fall on the river,
A moment white, then melts for ever.’ 16

Whenever craving for these objects is connected with sense pleasure it is called `Sensuous Craving' (kama-tanha). When it is associated with the belief in eternal personal existence, then it is called `Craving for Existence and Becoming' (bhava-tanha). This is what is known as the View of Eternalism (sassata ditthi), attachment to becoming, the desire for continuing to exist for ever. When craving is associated with the belief in 'self-annihilation' it is called craving for non-existence (vibhava-tanha). This is what is known as the View of Annihilationism (uccheda-ditthi).

It may be remembered that craving is conditioned not only by pleasurable and agreeable feelings, but also by unhappy and un­pleasant feelings. A man in distress craves to be rid of it, and longs for happiness and release. To put it another way, the poor and the needy, the sick and the disabled, in brief, all `sufferers' crave for happiness, pleasure and solace.    On the other hand, the rich and the healthy who are already experiencing pleasure, also crave, but for more and more acute pleasure. Thus this thirst, this craving, is insatiable, and people pursue fleeting pleasures, constantly seeking fuel for this life-flame.       Their greed is inordinate.

It is only when suffering comes, as its consequence, and not before, that one realizes the viciousness of this poisonous creeper of craving which winds itself round all who are not Arahats or per­fectly pure ones who have uprooted its tap-root, ignorance. The more we crave, the more we suffer; sorrow is the tribute we have to pay for having craved.

`From craving grief arises,
From craving arises fear,
For him who is from craving free
There is no giref, then whence comes fear?’ 17

Wherefore, know this craving as your foe here, that guides you to continued and repeated sentient existence, to rebirth, and thus builds the `House of Being!'

The Buddha said: `Dig up the root of craving.' (Tanhaya mulam khanatha). 18

'As a tree with firm, uninjured
Roots, though cut down, grows up again,
So when latent craving is not rooted out
Suffering again and again arises.’ 19

No sensible man will deny the existence of suffering or unsatis­factoriness in this sentient world, nevertheless it is difficult for him to comprehend how this craving or thirst brings about re-existence. To realize this one must understand two principal teachings of Buddhism: karma and rebirth.

If our present birth here is the beginning, and our death is the end of this life, we need not worry and try to understand the problem of suffering. A moral order in the universe, the reality of right and  wrong, may not be of any significance to us.  To enjoy and avoid suffering at any cost, may seem to be the sensible thing to do, during this brief span of life. This view, however, does not explain the in­equality of mankind, and in general, man is conscious of a moral causation. Hence the need to seek the cause of this ill.  The Pali word kamma (Skt. karma, from the root kr  to do) means literally 'action' or 'doing'. Not all actions, however, are considered as karma . The growing of hair and nails and; the digesting of food, for instance, are actions of a sort, but not karma.  Reflex actions also are not karma, but activities without moral significance.

'Volition, O monks, I declare, is kamma' (cetanaham bhikkhave kammam vadami) 20 is the Buddha's definition. Volition is a factor of the mind, a psychological impulse which comes under the group of formations (samkhara). So volition is part and parcel of the five groups of grasping that constitute the 'individual'. Karma is the action or seed. The effect or fruit is known as karma-vipaka. 'Having willed, man acts by deed, word or thought 21 and these volitions may be good or ill, so actions may be wholesome, un­wholesome or neutral according to their results. This endless play of action and reaction, cause and effect, seed and fruit, continues in perpetual motion, and this is becoming, a continually changing process of psycho-physical phenomena of existence (samsara).

It is clear that karma is volition which is a will, a force, and this force is classified into three types of cravin : Craving for sense pleasures, for existence and for non-existence. 22 Having willed, man acts, through body, speech and mind, and actions bring about reactions. Craving gives rise to deed, deed produces results in turn bring about new desires, new craving. This process of cause and effect, action and reaction, is a natural law. It is a law in itself, with no need for a law-giver. An external agency, power, or God that punishes the ill and rewards the good deeds, has no place in Buddhist thought. Man is always changing either for good or for evil. This changing is unavoidable and depends entirely on his own will, his own action, and on nothing else.       'This is merely the uni­versal natural law of the conservation of energy extended to the moral domain.'

Not much science is needed to understand how actions produce reactions, how effects follow causes and seed brings forth fruit, but how this karmic force, these acts of will, bring fruit in another birth after the dissolution of this body, is hard to grasp. According to Buddhism there is no life after death or before birth which is inde­pendent of karma or acts of will. Karma and rebirth go arm in arm, karma being the corollary of rebirth and vice versa. Here, however, we must understand that the Buddhist doctrine of karma is not fatalism, is not a philosophical doctrine that human action is not free but determined by motives which are regarded as external forces acting upon the will, or predetermined by God. The Buddha neither subscribed to the theory that all things are unalterably fixed, that they happen by inevitable necessity--that is Strict Determinism (niyati-vada) : nor did he uphold the theory of Complete Indeterminism (adhicca-samuppanna).

There is no eternal survival in heaven or hell in Buddhist thought. Birth precedes death, and death also precedes birth, so that the pair follow each other in bewildering succession. Still there is no soul, self, or fixed entity that passes from birth to birth. Though man comprises a psycho-physical unit of mind and matter, the 'psyche' or mind is not a soul or self, in the sense of an enduring entity, something ready-made and permanent. It is a force, a dynamic continuum capable of storing up memories not only of this life, but also of past lives. To the scientist matter is energy in a state of stress, change without real substance.       To the psychologist the 'psyche' is no more a fixed entity.      When the Buddha stressed that the so-called `being' or `individual' is nothing but a combination of physical and mental forces, or energies, a change with continuity, did he not antedate modern science and modern psychology by twenty-five centuries?

This psycho-physical organism undergoes incessant change, creates new psycho-physical processes every instant and thus pre­serves the potentiality for future organic processes, and leaves no gap between one moment and the next. We live and die every moment of our lives. It is merely a coming into being and passing. away, a rise and fall (udaya-vaya), like the waves of the sea.

This change of continuity, the psycho-physical process, which is patent to us this life does not cease at death but continues in­cessantly. It is the dynamic mind-flux that is known as will, thirst, desire or craving which constitutes karmic energy. This mighty force, this will to live, keeps life going. According to Buddhism it is not only human life, but the entire sentient world that is drawn by this tremendous force--this mind with its mental factors, good or ill.

The present birth is brought about by the craving and clinging karma-volitions (tanha-upadana) of past births, and the craving and clinging acts of will of the present birth bring about future rebirth. According to Buddhism it is this karma-volition that divides beings into high and low. 23

`Beings are heirs of their deeds; bearers of their deeds, and their deeds are the womb out of which they spring,’ 24     and through their deeds alone they must change for the better ; remake themselves; and win liberation from ill. It should, however, be remembered that according to Buddhism, not everything that occurs is due to past actions. During the time of the Buddha, sectarians like the Nigantha Nataputta held the view that whatever the individual experiences, be it pleasant or unpleasant or neither--all come from former actions or past kamma. 25 The Buddha, however, rejected this theory of an exclusive determination by the past (pubbekatahetu) as unreasonable. Many a thing is the result of our own deeds done in this present life, and of external causes.

One with an inquiring mind may ask, if there is no transmigrat­ing permanent Soul or Self to reincarnate, what is it that is reborn? The answer is that there is no permanent substance of the nature of Self of Soul (Atman) that reincarnates or transmigrates.       It is impossible to conceive of anything that continues without change. All is in a state of flux. What we call life here is the functioning of the five Aggregates of Grasping which we have discussed earlier, 26 or the functioning of mind and body which are only energies or forces. They are never the same for two consecutive moments, and in the conflux of mind and body we do not see anything permanent. The grown-up man is neither the child nor quite a different person; there is only a relationship of continuity. The conflux of mind and body or mental and physical energy is not lost at death, for no force or energy is ever lost. It undergoes change. It resets, re-forms in new conditions. This is called rebirth, re-existence or re-becoming (punabbhava).

Karmic process (kammabhava) is the energy that out of a present life conditions a future life in unending sequence. In this process there is nothing that passes or transmigrates from one life to another. It is only a movement that continues unbroken.       The `being who passes away’ here and takes birth elsewhere is neither the same person nor a totally different one (na ca so na ca anno). 27

There is the last moment of consciousness (cuti citta or vinnana) belonging to the immediately previous life; immediately next, upon the cessation of that consciousness, but conditioned by it, there arises the first moment  of consciousness  of the present birth which is called a relinking or rebirth-consciousness (patisandhi vinnana). 28 Similarly the last thought-moment in this life conditions the first thought-moment is the next. In this way consciousness comes into being and passes away yielding place to new consciousness. Thus this perpetual stream of consciousness goes on until existence ceases. Existence in a way is consciousness--the will to live, to continue.

According to modern biology, 'a new human life begins in that miraculous instant when a sperm cell from the father merges with an egg cell or ovum within the mother'. This is the moment of birth. Science speaks of only these two physical common factors. Buddhism, however, speaks of a third factor which is purely mental.

According to the Mahatanhasamkhaya-sutta, 29 `by the conjunction of three factors does conception take place.       If mother and father come together, but it is not the mother's proper season, and the being to be reborn (gandhabba) does not present itself, a germ of life is not planted. If the parents come together, and it is the mother's proper season, but the gandhabba is not present, then there is no conception. If the mother and father come together, and it is the mother's proper season and the gandhabba is also present, then a germ of life is planted them.'

The third factor is simply a term for the patisandhi-vinnana, re­birth-consciousness. It should be clearly understood that this re­birth-consciousness is not a Self or a Soul or an Ego-entity that experiences the fruits of good and evil deed. 30 Consciousness is also generated by conditions. Apart from condition there is no arising of consciousness.

We give names, such as birth, death, thought-processes and so on, to a stream of consciousness. There are only thought-moments. As explained above, the last thought-moment we call death, and the first thought-moment we call birth; thus births and deaths occur in this stream of consciousness, which is only a series of ever continuing thought-moments.

So long as man is attached to existence through his ignorance, craving and clinging, to him death is not the final end. He will continue his career of whirling round the 'Wheel of Existence'. This is the endless play of action and reaction kept in perpetual motion by karma concealed by ignorance propelled by craving or thirst. As karma, or action, is of our own making, we have the power to break this endless chain. It is through the eradication of ignorance (avijja) and of this driving force, craving, this thirst for existence, this will to live (tanha), that the Cycle of Existence (samsara) ceases. The Buddha explains thus: 'How is there not re-becoming in the future? By the cessation of ignorance, by the arising of knowledge (vijja), by the cessation of craving there is thus no re-becoming in the future.' 31

The Buddha on attaining Enlightenment spoke these joyful words:

'Repeated births are each a torment.
Seeking but not finding the "House Builder",
I wandered through many a Samsaric birth.
O "House Builder", thou art seen,
Thou wilt not rebuild the house.
All thy rafters have been shattered,
Demolished has thy ridge pole been.
My mind has won the Unconditioned (Nibbana),   
The extinction of craving is achieved (arahatship)' 32

1. In Sanskrit 'trishna' which is etymologically the same as 'thirst'.

2. Iti, I, ii, v.

3. Also compare M. i. 51 Sammaditti sutta. From the arising of feeling is the arising of craving, from the cessation of feeling is the cessation of craving; the way leading to the cessation of craving is this Noble Eightfold Path itself.

4. It is interesting, or rather strange, to note how Kassapa approached the Blessed One to put his question: The Blessed One was staying at Rajagaha, and one forenoon went out for his almsround. Kassapa, seeing the Blessed One from a distance, approached, greeted him and said: 'We would ask the Venerable Gotama concerning a certain point, if the Venerable Gotama gives us the opportunity of hearing his reply to our question.'
     ‘It is not the right time just now for questions, Kassapa, we have entered the village (for alms),' said the Buddha. Kassapa, however, repeated his question up to the third time, and received the same reply. Then said Kassapa: 'We do not intend asking many questions from the Venerable Gotama.'
     'Ask, Kassapa, what you will,' said the Blessed One.
     Compare this with the story of Upatissa in chapter 2.       

5. The Pali equivalents of the factors of the formula am: avijja, samkhara, vinnana, nama-rupa, salayatana, phassa, vedana, tanha, upadana, bhava, jati, jara-marana. For a detailed study see Dependent Origination by Piyadassi Thera (Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Ceylon).

6. Generally the two Pali words, anuloma and patiloma are translated as 'direct order' and 'reverse order'.     However, it is not quite correct to say reverse order, for it means: from the end towards beginning, or in the opposite order. Both the arising and the ceasing of the factors of dependent arising are from beginning to end.    For instance. with the arising of ignorance arise volitional formations and so on. With the ceasing of ignorance cease volitional formations and so on.

7. S. ii. 19.

8. A. i. 177.

9. See chapter 2. 

10. 'Nayidam attakatam bimbam
Nayidam parakatam agham;
Hetum paticca sambhutam,
Hetu bhanga nirujjhati. S. i. 134.

11. S. i. 39.         

12. A. ii. 80.       

13. S. iii. 149, 151: S. ii. 179. 

14. D. 22.  

15. Sn. 61.

16. Robert Burns, Tarn O' Shanter.    

17. Dhp. 216.

18. Ibid. 337.       

19. Ibid. 338.     

20. A. iii. 415. See chapter 7.

21. A. iii. 415.

22. See above, the same chapter.

23. M. 135.                 

24. M. 135.

25. M. iii. 214, Devadaha-sutta, D. 2. This view is examined at A. i. 173.

26. See chapter 3 above.     

27. Milindapanha.

28. The third proposition in the formula of 'Dependent Arising'. See above in the same chapter.

29. M. 38.

30. This view is discussed at M. 38. See chapter 3.

31. M. 43.