CHAPTER 14
RIGHT CONCENTRATION
(Samma-samadhi)
All religious systems teach some kind of meditation or mental exercise for man's inner development. It may take the form of silent prayer, reading individually or collectively from some `holy scripture' or concentrating on some sacred object, person or idea. And it is believed that these mental exercises, at times, result in seeing visions of saints, or holy men, in conversing with them or hearing voices, or some similar mysterious occurrences. Whether they are illusions, imaginations, hallucinations, mere projections of the sub-conscious mind, or real phenomena, one cannot say with certainty. Mind is an invisible force and is quite capable of producing all these phenomena. Trance is carried so far by certain yogis and mystics, that it becomes anaesthetic and they do not feel anything. 1 The present writer has seen people in `meditation' postures who have fallen into a kind of coma and seem to be lost in thought. Others witnessing such occurrences wrongly think that this is a kind of meditation (bhavana).
The Buddhist books tell us that through jhana (Skt. dhyana), meditative absorption, and through the development of mental faculties, man is capable of gaining psychic powers which enable him to see things far away, even beings on various planes of existence; to hear sounds at a distance and see past births, etc. But it is very important to bear in mind that the Buddhist jhana is not a state of auto-hypnosis, unconsciousness or coma. It is a state of mental purity where disturbing passions and impulses are subdued and calmed down, so that the mind becomes unified and collected, and enters into a state of clear consciousness and mindfulness.
It is interesting to observe that recent research in para-psychology has gained some acceptance of these phenomena. Interest in the subject of extra-sensory perception in experimental psychology is slowly gaining ground and the results obtained seem to be beyond ordinary comprehension. 2
These are, however, only side-products which are of minor significance when compared with man's final deliverance, his release from bonds. At times, these para-normal happenings may even act as bonds and retard realization. The meditation taught in Buddhism is neither for gaining union with any supreme being nor for manifesting any mystical experiences nor is it for any self-hypnosis, it brings calm and insight for the sole purpose of attaining unshakable deliverance of mind and supreme security from bondage through the total extirpation of all the mental defilements.
Man is an ever-changing process of mind and body, in which the most important element is the mind. In Buddhism, therefore, the greatest importance is attached to the human mind. Once a monk asked the Master: `Pray, venerable sir, by what is the world led? By what is the world drawn along? Under the sway of what one dhamma have all gone?'
`Well, monk, the world is led by mind (thought); by mind the world is drawn along; all have gone under the sway of the mind, the one dhamma.' 3
While some of his contemporaries like Nataputta (Jaina Mahavira) considered actions to be the most important, the Buddha gave mind the foremost place. 4 To control and clean the mind is the
heart of the Buddha's teaching. Happiness has to be found and perfection won through the mind. But so long as mind is defiled, polluted and uncontrolled, nothing worthy can be achieved through it. Hence the Buddha stressed mental purity as essential for true happiness and deliverance from suffering.
Many a man today thinks that freedom and unrestraint are synonyms, and, due to the materialistic trend of modern culture, which is predominantly sensual, thinks that the taming of the self (mind) hinders self-development. In the teaching of the Buddha, however, it is quite different. The self must be subdued and tamed on right lines if it is really to become well. To guard the mind from actions of lust, hate and delusion and train it to perform actions freed from lust, hate and delusion is the way to true weal and happiness in the dispensation of the Buddha.
It is only when the mind is controlled and is kept to the right road of orderly progress that it becomes useful for its possessor and for society. A disorderly mind is a liability both to its owner and to others. All the havoc wrought in the world is wrought by men who have not learned the way of mind control, balance and poise.
Rank, caste, colour and even wealth and power cannot necessarily make a man a person of value to the world. Only his character makes a man great and worthy of honour. `It is character that illumines wisdom.' 5 As the Buddha says: `Radiant is the mind at birth, it is polluted only by defilements from without.' 6 It is indeed hard to curb the impulses and control evil inclinations, to give up what lures and holds us in thrall and to exorcise the evil spirits that haunt the human heart in the shape of unwholesome thoughts. These thoughts are the manifestations of lust, hate and delusion, the threefold army of Death (Mara), which cannot be routed until one has attained real purity by constant training of the mind.
Control of the mind is the key to happiness. It is the king of virtues and the force behind all true achievement. It is owing to lack of control that various conflicts arise in man's mind. If he is to control them he must learn not to give free rein to his longings and inclinations and should try to live self-governed, pure and calm.
Calmness is not weakness. A calm attitude at all times shows a man of culture. It is not too hard for a man to be calm when things are favourable, but to be composed when things are wrong is hard indeed, and it is this difficult quality that is worth achieving; for by such calm and control he builds up strength of character. It is quite wrong to imagine that they alone are strong and powerful who are noisy, garrulous and fussily busy.
`Yes; emptiness is loud, but fullness, calm;
The fool's a half-filled crock; the sage, a lake.’ 7
The man who cultivates calmness of mind rarely gets upset when confronted with the vicissitudes of life. He tries to see things in their proper perspective, how things come into being and pass away. Free from anxiety and restlessness, he will try to see the fragility of the fragile. `Quiet minds ... go on, in fortune or misfortune, at their own private pace, like a clock during a thunderstorm.' 8
No amount of argument about calming the mind and perfecting life leads us to our desired aim. But each act of genuine renunciation of and detachment from the objects that incite passion, that lead us deeper into the night of ignorance and enslave us with their lure, leads to calmness and final deliverance.
Often our attempts to reach perfection are not crowned with success. But failure does not matter so long as we are sincere and pure in our motives, and strive again and again without stopping. No one reaches the summit of a hill at once. One rises by degrees. Like the skilful smith who removes the dross in gold bit by bit man must try to purge his life of its impurities. The path pointed by the Buddha for inner growth and development is that of meditation. Let us now turn to that path.
It is an admitted fact that when a man's mind is too engrossed in worldly affairs, in material things, his inclination for spiritual development is less. On the other hand, he who is genuinely bent on meditation or mental training cares less for worldly things. The yogi or the serious thinker is less attached to the material, is less concerned with worldly affairs.
Although the great majority of mankind delights in sensual pleasures, is attached to things that are seemingly important and agreeable, still there are people both in the East and West `with little dust in their eyes', `with keen faculties', seeking something quite different from the worldly-wise, different from the preoccupation of the world.
In recent times people have been busy examining and investigating psychic phenomena the study of which seems to reveal hidden channels of the human mind, and the urge in man to seek spiritual guidance. Man's need for inner development is on the increase, which is a good sign.
It goes without saying that thoughts that are of real importance can only grow as the result of long periods of quiet. It is in and through solitude that the human mind gains in strength and power. The greatest creative energy works in silence, but people seem to like noise better than silence. The vast majority are so burdened with everyday affairs, so engrossed in things seemingly very important, that they overlook the importance of silent contemplation. When we withdraw into the silence, we are absolutely alone to see ourselves as we really are; we stand face to face with actuality, and then we can learn to overcome the weaknesses and limitations of ordinary experience. But we seem so often to be busy like a squirrel in a revolving cage which, though very active, merely turns the cage, The hen on her eggs, though seemingly inactive and lethargic, is doing something useful, she is warming the eggs so that the chicks hatch out.
We should try to put in at least half an hour every day being busy like the hen on her eggs. When our mind is calm and quiet it is time to take advantage of it by engaging in silent communication with our own mind in order to understand our true nature without pretence. Now the ordinary layman may ask: `How can we householders, living a life of toil and need, with so many duties to perform, find the time to meditate?' Man, however, finds time to indulge in things that delight him. If he has the will surely he can devote a short period every day to meditation, whether it be at dawn, just before sleep, or when the mind is ready--some time, however brief, wherein to collect his thoughts and concentrate.
If a man thus tries to practise a little quiet contemplation day by day, he will be able to perform his duties better and in a more efficient way, he will have the courage to face tribulations and worries with a brave heart and will find contentment more easily. It is worth trying. Only one must have the determination and the urge to make the effort.
All types of meditation discussed in Buddhism lead to mental health and never to sickness; for each and every type of meditation is an effort to control and ease the tension of mental states that tend to sicken the mind. Ills of the body are not difficult to cure, but ailments of the mind are truly hard to remedy, hence the need and the effort to cleanse the mind of its impurities. This may be the most difficult thing that a man can do, but it is just what he ought to do. `Rare in this world are those who can claim freedom from mental illness even for one moment save those in whom the taints have been wiped out (the Arahats).' 9
When Nakulapita, who was old, weak and ailing, approached the Master to pay his respects and hear something to his cheer and comfort, the Buddha said: 'It is true that you are weak and ailing. For a person carrying this body about to claim but a moment's health would be foolish. For this reason, thus you should train yourself: "Though my body is sick, my mind shall not be sick." Thus must you train yourself. 10
It must be stated emphatically that meditation is not a voluntary exile from life, or something practised for the hereafter. Meditation should be applied to the daily affairs of life, and its results are obtained here and now. It is not something separated from the workaday life. It is part and parcel of our lives. If we ignore it life lacks meaning, purpose and inspiration.
In Buddhism meditation 11 occupies the highest place; for it is in and through meditation that enlightenment and supreme security from bondage, spoken so highly of in the teachings of the Buddha, are attained.
Expositions of meditation as it is handed down in the early Buddhist writings are more or less based on the methods used by the Buddha for his own attainment of enlightenment and Nirvana and on his personal experience of mental development.
Meditation as practised and experienced by the Buddha, before and after his enlightenment, is divided into two forms or systems: Concentration of mind or samadhi (samatha), that is unification of the mind (cittekaggata, Skt. cittaikagrata), and 'Insight' (vipassana, Skt. vipasyana or vidarsana). Of these two forms, samadhi or concentration has the function of calming the mind, and for this reason the word samatha or samadhi, in some contexts, is rendered as calmness, tranquillity or quiescence. Calming the mind implies unification or, if you like, 'one-pointedness' of the mind. Unification is brought about by focussing the mind on one salutary object to the exclusion of all others.
'What is concentration? What are its marks, requisites and development?
'Whatever is unification of mind, this is concentration; the four arousings of mindfulness 12 are the marks of concentration; the four right efforts 13 are the requisites for concentration; whatever is the exercise, the development, the increase of these very things, this is herein the development of concentration.' 14
This statement clearly indicates that the three factors of the samadhi group, namely, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration function together in support of each other. They comprise real concentration.
Many `subjects of meditation' (kammatthana) 15 are mentioned in the texts and commentaries, and some of them when carefully developed enable the meditator to reach very high mental concentration and attainments known as jhana, meditative absorptions which lead to `the Sphere of Nothingness' or `the Sphere of Neither-Perception-nor-Non-Perception'. However high and lofty these mental attainments may be, they cannot, and do not, bring about realization of truth and supreme security from bondage.
It is evident from the texts that neither Alara Kalama nor Uddaka Ramaputta, two of the most advanced meditation masters of the day to whom the Bodhisatta Gotama went for instruction and guidance, nor his contemporary yogis, could show him the way to the highest truth and security from bondage. This was because all their mystical experiences which culminated in 'the Sphere of Neither-Perception-nor-Non-Perception', were insufficient to probe into the true nature of all conditioned things, that is to see Reality, to see things as they really are. These jhanic experiences undoubtedly bring about a very high concentration of mind which leads to absolute calm and tranquillity resulting in unalloyed feelings of rapturous joy and happiness in this life (ditthadhammasukha-vihara). Now this happiness is caused by mental calm which is the natural result of subduing the five special hindrances mentioned in the books, which we will discuss presently.
It must be mentioned here that the development of concentrative calm (samatha bhavana) as taught in Buddhism is not exclusively Buddhist. Yogis before the advent of Buddha practised different systems of meditation as they still do now. India has always been a land of mysticism, but the yoga then prevalent never went beyond a certain point. The Bodhisatta was not satisfied with mere jhana and mystical experiences, his one and only aim was to attain Reality, Nirvana. With this end in view he probed into the deepest recesses of his mind in search of a method of meditation that would bring him complete peace and deliverance.
As we saw above, 16 the Bodhisatta finally sat under a tree at Gaya and practised concentration applying himself to mindfulness of in-and-out breathing (anapanasati). Having thus gained perfect calm, he was able to develop Insight (vipassana), or true wisdom that enables a person to see things as they really are, to see the three characteristics or signs of conditioned things: impermanence, suffering or unsatisfactoriness and not-Self. It was by this `Insight', this penetrative wisdom, that the Bodhisatta was able to burst through the hard shell of ignorance to Reality, to comprehend, in all their fullness, the Four Noble Truths, the Dhamma not heard (by him) before.’ 17
The word vipassana (vi+passana) means by derivation, seeing in an extraordinary way--from the word passati to see and the prefix vi denoting, special or particular. Vipassana, therefore, means, seeing beyond what is ordinary, clear vision. It is not surface seeing or skimming, not seeing mere appearances but things as they really are, which means seeing the three characteristics of all phenomenal existence. 18 It is this insight, with calm concentration of mind as its basis, that enables the yogi to purge his mind of all defilements and see Reality--Nirvana. Insight meditation (vipassana-bhavana) therefore, is a typical doctrine of the Buddha himself, a unique experience of the Master, exclusively Buddhist, and was not in existence prior to the advent of the Buddha.
Thus calm and insight (samatha-vipassana) go together and `they occur simultaneously (yuganaddha).' 19 One brings meditation to fulfilment by yoking calm and insight together so that they pull evenly. On the one hand is calming of the mind, on the other keen investigation.
`Here the development of penetrative Insight (Vipassana) combines with that of tranquillizing concentration (Samatha), and each functions in a way that does not outstrip the other. Both gain uniformity of force. Through the overdoing of analysis there can be flurry. And indolence creeps in through too much tranquillity.' 20
And the Buddha says: `Develop calm, O monks, the monk who has gained calm sees things as they are.' 21
The development of concentrative calm, however, is never an end in itself. It is only a means to something more sublime which is of vital importance, namely insight (vipassana). In other words, a means to the gaining of Right Understanding, the first factor of the Path. Though only a means to an end, it plays an important role in the Noble Eightfold Path. It is also known as citta-visuddhi, purity of mind, which is brought about by stilling the hindrances. And no purity of mind, no concentrative calm, can be expected from a person who is oppressed with painful feelings. It is plain and clear that so long as a man's body or mind is afflicted with pain no concentration worth the name can be obtained. The Buddha makes this point clear: `The mind of him who suffers is not concentrated.' 22
`Two things (dhamma), monks, should be developed for the understanding of lust, hate and delusion.... What two? Calm and insight. These two things should be developed for the abandonment, extinction and cessation of lust, hate and delusion... ' 23
Further says the Buddha:
`Two things, monks, partake of knowledge (vijja-bhagiya); calm and insight; when calm is developed, so is mind; through developed mind lust is abandoned. When insight is developed, so is wisdom (right understanding); through developed insight, ignorance is abandoned. The mind polluted with lust is not liberated. When there is pollution through ignorance wisdom is not developed. Thus deliverance of the mind (ceto vimutti) is due to the mind being cleansed from lust. Deliverance of wisdom (panna vimutti) is due to the mind being cleansed from ignorance.'24
From the foregoing it is obvious that calm and insight, in other words, Right Concentration and Right Understanding of the Path, cannot be separated; together they support each other. Without a certain measure of concentrative calm no insight can be developed and without some measure of insight, some knowledge of the nature of life, no concentration can be developed. This fact is explained by the Buddha thus:
`No concentration is there for the unwise,
No wisdom in one who lacks concentration;
In whom there is concentration and wisdom,
He truly is in Nibbana's neighbourhood.’ 25
The seeker of highest purification who is well established in virtue, practises true asceticism (tapas), burns out his passions and develops the path of meditative absorption (jhana magga) by overcoming the many obstacles that confront a meditator. But there are five particular hindrances that obstruct concentration and the path to deliverance. In the texts they are called panca nivaranani, the five hindrances. Referring to them the Buddha says: `There are, monks, these five hindrances which cause blindness, loss of vision, and non-knowledge which take away one's insight, are associated with pain and do not lead to Nibbana'. 26
Nivaranani means those which hinder and obstruct mental development. They are called hindrances because they completely close in, cut off and obstruct. They close the door to deliverance. What are the five?
1. Sense desire (kamacchanda).
2. Ill-will (vyapada).
3. Sloth and torpor (thina-middha).
4. Restlessness and worry (uddhacca-kukkucca).
5. Sceptical doubt (vicikiccha).
1. Kamacchanda is lust for sense objects. Sensual thoughts definitely retard mental development. They disturb the mind and hinder concentration. Sensuality is due to non-restraint of the senses, which when unguarded give rise, to thoughts of lust so that the mind-flux is defiled. Hence the need for the yogi to be on his guard against this hindrance which closes the door to deliverance.27
2. The next is ill-will. As in the case of sense desire, it is unwise or unsystematic attention that brings about ill-will, which when not checked propagates itself, saps the mind and clouds the vision. It distorts the entire mind and its properties and thus hinders awakening to truth, and blocks the path to freedom. Lust and ill-will based on ignorance, not only hamper mental growth, but act as the root cause of strife and dissension between man and man and nation and nation.
3. The third hindrance, thina and middha, is sloth or a morbid state of the mind and mental properties. It is not, as some are inclined to think, sluggishness of the body; for even the Arahats, the Perfect Ones, who are free from this ill also experience bodily fatigue. This sloth and torpor, like butter too stiff to spread, makes the mind rigid and inert and thus lessens the yogi's enthusiasm and earnestness for meditation so that he becomes mentally sick and lazy. Laxity leads to greater slackness until finally there arises a state of callous indifference.
4. The fourth hindrance is restlessness and worry, another disadvantage that makes progress difficult. When the mind becomes restless like flustered bees in a shaken hive, it cannot concentrate. This mental agitation prevents calmness and blocks the upward path. Mental worry is just as harmful. When a man worries over one thing and another, over things done or left undone and over misfortunes, he can never have peace of mind. All this bother and worry, this fidgeting and unsteadiness of mind prevents concentration. Hence these two drawbacks, restlessness and worry, are included in the five hindrances that retard mental progress.
5. The fifth and the last hindrance is sceptical doubt. The Pali word vi + cikiccha means literally: without (vi = vigata) medicine (cikiccha). Yes, one who suffers from perplexity is really suffering from a dire disease, and unless he sheds his doubts, he will continue to worry over and suffer from this illness. As long as man is subject to this mental itch, this sitting on the fence, he will continue to take a sceptical view of things which is most detrimental to mental development. The commentators explain this hindrance as the inability to decide anything definitely; it also includes doubt with regard to the possibility of attaining the jhanas. Thus these five hindrances both individually and collectively prevent the attainment of concentration calm.
The mind that is obsessed by such detrimental forces cannot concentrate successfully on any object of a wholesome nature. It is true that a man can, however, concentrate on an object with thoughts of lust or ill-will, etc., but then, that is wrong concentration (miccha samadhi). It is obvious that as long as impurities or passions (kilesa) exist in man, evil and unwholesome thoughts will continue to arise. The meditator who practises samadhi, however, is incapable of committing any evil; for the hindrances are under control.
One has to develop five psychic factors known as jhananga or factors of jhana to overcome the hindrances. They are: vitakka, vicara, piti, sukha and ekaggata which are the very opposites of the five hindrances. It is these psychic factors that raise the yogi from lower to higher levels of mental purity. The consciousness that is associated with them becomes known as jhana. These psychic factors, in order, step by step, subdue the hindrances that block the path of concentration.
Sense desire, for instance, is subdued by ekaggata, that is, unification of the mind; ill-will by joy (piti); sloth and torpor by applied thought (vitakka) ; restlessness and worry by happiness (sukha) and doubt by sustained thought (vicara). When they are placed side by side they stand thus:
kamacchanda - ekaggata
vyapada - piti
thina-middha - vitakka
uddhacca-kukkucca - sukha
vicikiccha - vicara
Now a person who is really bent on meditation seeks a secluded spot and avoids people as much as possible. Calm that is gained through meditation in solitude will help a prudent man to return to the world and carry on in a better, more methodical and efficient way without falling a prey to the pleasures of city life.
A sincere student bent on deep study cuts himself off from sense attractions, seeks a congenial atmosphere, works hard and passes his examination. In the same way the meditator retires to some suitable place and fixes his mind on a subject of meditation. He has now ventured on a most difficult task. He sees how his mind really works, how his thoughts come and go, how they appear and reappear. He lives contemplating mental objects. Now when sense desire is present, he knows: 'I have sense desires'; and when they are not present, he knows: 'I have no sense desires....' In this way the meditator understands the remaining four hindrances. 28 Thus with the aid of right effort and right mindfulness, the two other factors of the path that comprise samadhi, he first gains proximate concentration (upacara samadhi) ; then by subduing the hindrances and washing out the impurities of his mind-flux, he gradually reaches the first jhana. This is called ecstatic or attainment-concentration (appana samadhi). By stages, in due course, he attains the three other jhanas. 29 At this jhanic stage the intense steadiness of his mind can be compared to the unflickering flame of a lamp on a windless day. This deep concentration fixes the mind aright and causes it to be unmoved and undisturbed. The mind and its properties are maintained in a state of balance like a pair of scales held in a steady hand. As long as he is in this meditative absorption, in this highest type of concentration, he cannot be disturbed under the most adverse conditions. After attaining the fourth jhana, he can develop supernormal powers, read the mind of others, probe into the distant past and see former births, etc.
It may, however, be noted that even this higher practice of samadhi does not place the meditator in a position of security; for the underlying or latent tendencies are not removed. They are in abeyance and at any moment may reappear when circumstances permit, and plague his mind if right effort and right mindfulness wane. As he still has the impurities, unwholesome impulses, latent in his make-up, he is not yet in a state of absolute security. He has only gained calm of mind through concentration which is a very necessary means to insight. It is through insight that the latent tendencies are rooted out, of his mind. When these tendencies lie dormant in the recesses of man's mind they are called latent or underlying (anusaya). They are dormant so long as they are not fed. The five sense organs, with the mind as the sixth, provide the necessary food in the form of visible objects, sounds, smell, taste, touch and mental objects. These foods are either agreeable or offensive. In either case sense objects act as stimulants, and no sooner are the latent tendencies thus stimulated than they rise to the surface. This rising of the tendencies is known as pariutthana or samudagata. When they are thus awakened and roused, they tend to escape, and seek an outlet. If man fails to exercise wise attention and to control the risen tendencies, they escape either through the doors of speech or deed or both, and that is called transgression or going beyond (vitikkama).
Of these three stages of the tendencies, the third, that is the 'transgression stage', is coarse, the second, the 'risen stage’, is fine, and the first, or the 'latent stage', is still finer. The three weapons to overcome and deliver mind from these three stages are Virtue, Concentration and Wisdom. Through Virtue or sila all bodily and verbal ill actions are brought under control, and the transgression stage is checked. It is true even for taming verbal and physical acts a certain measure of mental discipline is needed, but not necessarily intense and serious meditation. Man may, through sila, be calm and composed verbally and physically, but not in mind; he lacks Concentration, samadhi. Virtue cannot control the mind, though it is an and to mental calm. Concentration with the aid of wise attention subdues the second stage of the tendencies thus preventing them from escaping. Concentration, however, is incapable of removing the latent tendencies, but wisdom, or panna does so. Through wisdom, which is insight, all impluses, all tendencies, with their roots are removed and abolished. And this is deliverance (nissarana).
It is vjpassana bhavana, Insight-meditation, 30 that removes the latent tendencies. So the meditator, establishing himself in concentrative calm, develops insight:
'Sabbe samkhara anicca....
Sabbe samkhara dukkha....
Sabba dhamma anatta...' 31
'All conditioned things are impermanent;
All conditioned things are dukkha, unsatisfactory.
All dhamma (things) are without a Self, a Soul.'
The development of insight means the attempt to understand the five aggregates of clinging as impermanent, unsatisfactory and without Self. So the meditator, ardent and wise, continues with his Insight meditation, until one day, for the first time, he gains insight into the true nature of himself, that is of his aggregates, and partially experiences Nirvana thus attaining the first stage of realization. This achievement breaks the three fetters 32 (1) self-illusion, i.e the delusion of an 'I' presiding over the aggregates, (2) doubt and (3) indulgence in (wrong) rites, rituals and ceremonies so that he becomes a Sotapanna, a Stream Enterer. 33 As his dross is not fully burnt is reborn seven times at most but never below the human plane. 34 His words and acts are perfectly moral and he abstains from killing, stealing, adultery, lying and the use of intoxicants.
Continuing zestfully his 'Insight-meditation', he weakens two more fetters, (4) sense desire and (5) ill-will. With a clearer vision of Nirvana he attains the second stage of realization and becomes known as Sakadagami, a Once-Returner; for if he fails to attain Arahatship he is reborn on earth only once more.
Finally breaking the weakened fetters of sense desire and ill-will, 35 he then attains the third stage of realization, sees Nirvana with a still clearer vision, and is called Anagami, a Non-Returner, because when sensuality is rooted out, he cannot be reborn in the realm of sense pleasures (kama-loka) which includes the human world, the lower heavenly worlds and all states of woe. He is reborn in the Brahma worlds. 36
Through his clear insight he then attains the fourth and the final stage of realization and becomes known as Araham (an Arahat), the Consummate One, the Perfect One. With this attainment the remaining five fetters : 37 (6) lust for form, (7) and for the formless, 38 (8) conceit, (9) restlessness and (10) ignorance are broken. With this final catharsis he reaches the state where dawns for him, in all its fullness, the Light of Nirvana, that Calm beyond words, and Unshakable Deliverance of the mind so that the world holds nothing for him any more.
Being freed he knows: 'Destroyed is birth; lived is the life of purity (the noble life); done is what was to be done; there is no more of this to come (meaning there is no more continuity of the aggregates, that is no more becoming or rebirth).' 39
An Arahat has gone beyond both good and evil. 40 As he is free from karma-producing volitional formations (i.e. samkhara, the second proposition, in the theory of Dependent Arising), he ceases to accumulate any fresh karma, though he is not exempt from the fruit of his past karma. Whatever he does, whether by thought, speech or physical act, creates no fresh karma for him, but is "issueless". These acts are not conditioned by any passions or latent tendencies. They are mere deeds (kiriya) yet they affect others. It is to such perfect saints that the Buddha referred when he said:
'He who has broken human bonds
And transcended those from heaven,
He who from all bonds is free,
Him I call a Brahmana. 41
He whose lust, hate and pride have fallen
As mustard seed from a needle's point,
Him I call a Brahmana.' 42
The temperament or character (carita) of human beings varies. The Visuddhi Magga mentions six main types which include many lesser ones. They are those disposed to lust, hate, infatuation, faith, intellectuality and discursiveness. As is differ, so do the subjects of meditation (kammatthana). 43 One comes across these subjects scattered in the Pali texts, especially in the discourses. The Visuddhimagga 44 describes forty of them:
Ten Objects called Kasina (Skt. krtsna),
Ten Objects of Impurity, Asubha,
Ten Recollections, Anussati,
Four Sublime States, Brahmavihara,
Four Formless Spheres, Aruppa,
One Perception, Eka Sanna,
One Analysis, Vavatthana.
As to suitability it is said that the Ten Impurities and Mindfulness of the body are suitable for one of lustful temperament: the four Sublime States and the four Colour (vanna) Kasinas for the irritable: mindfulness on in- and out-breathing for the deluded and discursive: the first Six Recollections for the faithful: and for the intellectual Mindfulness of Death, the Recollection of Peace, the Analysis of the Four Primaries and the Perception that Food is Repulsive. The remaining Kasinas and the Formless Spheres are suitable for all types of temperament. 45
There is neither room nor need to list the various subjects of meditation in this chapter on Right Concentration. Those interested can study them in the Visuddhimagga 46 or the Vimuttimagga. 47
As a matter of fact, hard and fast rules cannot be laid down with regard to different temperaments and subjects of meditation. In the Majjhima Nikaya there are two discourses (Nos. 61, 62) in which the Buddha exhorts the Venerable Rahula when teaching him the Dhamma. They are devoted wholly to instructions on meditation. In the sixty-second it is interesting to note that the Master gives seven types of meditation to young Rahula, who according to the Commentary, was only eighteen and a samanera when he received them. Here is an extract from the discourse:
'Develop the meditation on lovingkindness (metta), Rahula; for by this ill-will is banished.'
'Develop the meditation on compassion (karuna), Rahula; for by this cruelty is banished.'
`Develop the meditation on sympathetic joy (mudita), Rahula; for by this aversion (to meditation) is banished.
'Develop the meditation on equanimity (upekkha), Rahula; for by this hatred is banished.
'Develop the meditation on impurity (asubha), Rahula; for by this lust is banished.
'Develop the meditation on the concept of impermanence (aniccasanna), Rahula; for by this pride of self (asmi-mana) is banished.
'Develop the concentration of mindfulness on in- and out-breathing (anapanasati), Rahula: in- and out-breathing with mindfulness, Rahula, developed and frequently practised bears much fruit, is of great advantage.'
One cannot and need not practise all the forty subjects of meditation: what is important is to select the one that suits one best. It helps to seek the guidance of a man who is experienced in meditation, but to start with, the books mentioned above are enough for the earnest meditator. It is, however, most important to recognize honestly what your temperament or character is; for until you have done so you cannot select the suitable subject of meditation. Once you have chosen it, work at it with confidence. If you are engrossed in worldly affairs, in routine work, it may not be easy for you to cut yourself off and sit down in a quiet place for a definite period each day for serious meditation: but it can be done and if you are sincere you may well succeed. The meditation must be done regularly at fixed times for a considerable period and you must not expect quick results. Psychological changes come very slowly. It is through training in quiet contemplation that a quiet mind is achieved. Can you also achieve it? Lord Horder's answer is interesting: '... The answer is "Yes". But how? Well, not by doing "some great thing". "Why were the saints saints?" someone asked. And the answer came: "Because they were cheerful when it was difficult to be cheerful and patient when it was difficult to be patient. They pushed on when they wanted to stand still, and kept silent when they wanted to talk." That was all. So simple, but so difficult. A matter of mental hygiene... ' 48
Let us now consider one of the forty subjects of meditation. Mindfulness on in- and out-breathing (anapanasati) is a well-known meditation liked and practised by many. It was used by the Bodhisatta when striving for Enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree and the Buddha himself was most emphatic on the importance of practising it. Once the Blessed One said: 'Monks, I wish to live in solitude for three months. Let my only visitor be the one who brings me food.' 'Very well, venerable sir,' replied the monks. At the end of the three months the Blessed One addressed the monks thus:
'Monks, if others (those belonging to other faiths) were to ask you: "What meditation did Samana Gotama frequently practise during the Rains?" you should say: "The Blessed One spent the Rains frequently practising the meditation of Mindfulness on in- and out-breathing." Herein, monks, mindful I breathe in, mindful I breathe out... (as in the discourse stated in chapter 13). Monks, one who speaks rightly should say mindfulness on in- and out-breathing is the ariya (noble) way of life the brahma (sublime) way of life, the Tathagata's way of life.' 49
The Buddhist canon is full of references to this meditation on anapanasati, and it is no wonder that the Master when exhorting Rahula, gave detailed instruction on it. Let us turn again to the sixty-second discourse of the Majjhima Nikaya: 50
'A monk Rahula, having gone to the forest, the foot of a tree, or a lonely place, sits down cross-legged 51 keeping the body erect, and his mindfulness alert, mindfully he breathes in, mindfully he breathes out. When breathing in a long breath, he knows: "I breathe in a long breath"; when breathing out a long breath, he knows: "I breathe out a long breath"; when breathing in a short breath, he knows: "I breathe in a short breath"; when breathing out a short breath, he knows: "I breathe out a short breath." "Conscious of the entire process 52 I will breathe in," thus he trains himself; "conscious of the entire process I will breathe out," thus he trains himself. "Calming the bodily function (of breathing) I will breathe in," thus he trains himself. "Calming the bodily function (of breathing) I will breathe out," thus he trains himself'; and so on; the discourse proceeds and ends up stating: 'Mindfulness on in- and out-breathing, Rahula, thus developed and frequently practised is productive of much fruit, of much advantage. When, Rahula, in- and out-breathing with mindfulness, is thus developed and frequently practised even the last in-breath and out-breath ceases consciously and not unconsciously.'
Here one should note with care the words 'consciously he breathes in and consciously he breathes out', etc. 'Consciously' means 'with awareness'; 'with mindfulness (sato)'. He is mindful of the breath and not of himself, his one and only aim is to focus the mind on the breath to the exclusion of other thoughts and fix the mind there; for if what is in the 'marginal' zone breaks in upon the 'focal' zone, he cannot concentrate, he becomes discursive.
When you practise concentration on in- and out-breathing, you should fix your attention at the point where the moving air strokes the nostrils and note how your breath goes in and out, but do not follow it. There should not be any holding or stopping of your breath. It should be quite natural without any effort or force on your part. At times it may become so fine that you may no longer notice it. But that must not be taken to mean that your mind is blank. When you proceed developing this mindfulness by degrees, and when your `mind is fully concentrated on the breath, you will notice that there is only a breath and nothing behind it--no Self, Soul, ego or anything of that nature--that is, the breath and you are not two things; there is only a process. If you can come to that level of understanding your concentration is very high and with this comes rapturous joy, calm and peace of mind, but this may be only for a short moment, and your mind may again become discursive, your thoughts may wander and you may find it difficult to concentrate. It does not matter, you should `onward ever bravely press'. Even if you fail to gain jhanic experience, this meditation will bring many benefits. It will aid clear thinking, deep understanding, mental balance and tranquillity. It will improve your health both physical and mental and keep you fit.
The Buddha says: 'Mindfulness on in- and out-breathing, monks, if developed and frequently practised is productive of much fruit, of much advantage. Mindfulness, on in- and out-breathing, monks, if developed and frequently practised, fulfils the "Four Arousings of Mindfulness"; 53 the Four Arousings of Mindfulness, if developed and frequently practised bring to fulfilment the Seven Factors of Enlightenment; 54 the Seven Factors of Enlightenment, if developed and frequently practised bring to fulfilment, freedom through knowledge.’ 55
The account of mindfulness on in- and out-breathing given above is far from adequate for a beginner, but it is not possible within the scope of this chapter on samadhi to go into greater detail. Those who so wish are referred to the books mentioned above. 56
Meditation being the heart-beat of his Dispensation, the Buddha often stressed the importance of mental discipline. He urged and encouraged others to gain self mastery, in such words as these:
'Irrigators direct the water,
Fletchers fashion the shaft,
Carpenters bend the wood,
The wise control themselves.' 57
The story connected with this stanza is important from more than one angle. A disciple of the Venerable Sariputta, Pandita by name, very young and still a novice in the Order, followed the Elder when he entered the village for alms. When they were thus proceeding the novice saw a ditch and asked his teacher:
- Venerable sir, what is that?
- A ditch.
- What do they use it for?
- They use it to direct water to their fields for irrigation.
- Is this water something animate, has it a mind?
- No.
- Then, venerable sir, can they direct this thing which lacks reason, which is inanimate, to any place they like?
- Yes.
Then thought the novice: `Well, if people can direct an inanimate thing like this wherever they wish, why cannot they who have a mind bring that mind under control and win the fruit of this life, sainthood (arahatship)?'
Proceeding further they saw some arrow-makers fashioning shafts.
- What are these men doing, venerable sir?
- They are fletchers; they straighten the shafts.
- Have these shafts the power of reason?
- No, they lack reason.
Then reflected the novice: 'If these men can fashion these shafts, why cannot man who possesses a mind focus it under control and strive thereby to attain the goal?'
Proceeding still further, they watched some wheelwrights at work.
- What a,, re they doing, venerable sir?
- They bend wood and shape it into cart-wheels.
- Does this wood have a mind?
- No.
Then pondered the novice: 'These men are able to shape this senseless wood into wheels. Why cannot a man who possesses the faculty of reason, control his mind and lead a holy life?'
The novice thus carefully observing these three things said to the Elder: 'Venerable sir, would you please take back your alms bowl and robe, as I want to turn back.'
When the Elder agreed, the novice paid obeisance to him and turned back. He entered the Elder's cell and sat there in meditation. Developing contemplation on his own body, riveting and centering his thoughts on it he gained Insight-meditation and attained Arahatship. Thus did a samanera on the eighth day of his ordination, though young in age, but mature in meditation, awaken to Reality by controlling his mind. 58
The Buddha, referring to such saints, said:
‘The monk who has entered a lonely cell,
Whose mind is calmed and who sees the Dhamma,
The Truth, with Insight, to him there comes
Rapturous joy transcending that of men.’
‘Whenever he reflects upon
The rise and fall of Aggregates
He obtains joy and rapture,
Deathless is that to the wise.’ 59
1. With Mystics and Magicians in Tibet by Alexandra David Neel (Penguin 1940), gives interesting accounts of Tibetan mystics.
2. For information read works of J. B. Rhine of Duke University, Ian Stevenson of Virginia University and papers contributed to scientific publications by these professors, the books of Gina Cerminara and the Cayce Reports.
3. A. ii. 177 This is put in verse at S. i. 39. There the question came from a deity.
4. See Upali sutra, M. 56.
5. A. i. 102
6. A. i. 10.
7. Sn. 721.
8. R. L. Stevenson.
9. A. ii. 143.
10. S. iii. 2.
11. The word meditation really is no equivalent of the Buddhist term bhavana which literally means 'development' or 'culture', i.e. development of mind or culture of mind. Bhavana, in Buddhism, means cultivation in the true sense of the word. It is the removal of all evil and unwholesome mental factors, and developing or cultivating all good and wholesome mental factors in order to produce a calm, concentrated mind that sees the true nature of all phenomenal things and realizes Nirvana the supreme security from bondage.
12. See chapter 13.
13. See above, pp. 84, chapter 12.
14. M. i. 301, sutta 44.
15 Kammatthana means literally a basis for concentration, some salutary object on which to concentrate.
16. See chapter 1.
17. S. v. 421 (First Sermon).
18. See below, in the same chapter, pp. 95.
19. M. sutta 149; III, 289 Yuganaddha ti ekakkhanikayuganaddha, Com.
20. The Way of Mindfulness by Bhikkhu Soma (Lake House, Colombo, 1949), p. xvii.
21. S. iii. sutta 5.
22. S. v. 398.
23. A. i. 100.
24. A. i. 61.
25. Dhp. 372.
26. S. v. 97.
27. For details see chapter 4.
28. See above, in the same chapter.
29. The four Jhanas (meditative absorptions) are formulated in the discourses s follows:
(a) `Herein, monks, a monk, aloof from sense desire, aloof from unwholesome thoughts, attains to and abides in the first jhana which is detachment-born and accompanied by applied thought, sustained thought, joy and bliss.
(b) `Again by allaying applied and sustained thought, he attains to and abides in the second jhana which is inner tranquillity, which is unification of mind, devoid of applied and sustained thought and which has joy and bliss.
(c) 'Again by detachment from joy he dwells in equanimity, mindful and with dear comprehension and enjoys bliss in body, and attains to and abides in the third jhana which the noble ones (ariyas) call: "Dwelling in equanimity, mindfulness and bliss."
(d) 'Again and by the giving up of bliss and suffering, by the vanishing already of joy and sorrow, he attains to and abides in the fourth jhana which is neither suffering nor bliss and which is the purity of equanimity mindfulness.'
D. ii. 186; M. i. 159, 181 and passim.
30. See chapter 7 on Right Understanding.
31. Dhp. 277-9.
32. There are ten fetters (dasa samyojanani): 1. sakkaya-ditthi, 2. vicikiccha, 3. silabbata-paramasa, 4. kama-raga, 5. vyapada, 6. ruparaga, 7, aruparaga, 8. mana, 9. uddhacca, 10. avijja. (Sangiti-sutta, D. 33.)
33. 'Stream' is a synonym for the Path, Com.
34. The same idea is conveyed in the tenth verse of the Ratana-sutta or 'Jewel Discourse', Sn. For a detailed commentarial explanation of the verse and the technical terms, see Minor Readings and Illustrator by Bhikkhu Nanamoli (Pali Text Society, London, 1960), p. 204.
35. These five are called the 'lower' (orambhagiya) fetters, because they bind man to the lower worlds known as kama-lokas, or worlds of sense pleasures. See M. 6 and 64.
36. See M. 6: S. v. 61.
37. These five are called the 'higher' (uddhambhagiya) fetters, because they bind man to the higher worlds, See D. 33: S. 561.
38. This is the desire for form worlds (rupa-loka) and formless worlds (arupa-loka), or the desire for the rupa-jhana and arupa-jhana. Though these desires are not so coarse as the desire for carnal pleasures, still they are desires in a subtle way, and therefore hinder higher attainments.
39. S. iii. 822.
40. Dhp. 39, 412.
41. Dhp 417. Here the word 'Brahmana' is a synonym for the Arahat in the sense of 'one who has put aside evil'--'bahita-papa' cf. Dhp. 388.
42. Sn. 631.
43. Vism: ch. iii or Path of Purification by Bhikkhu Nanamoli (Colombo, 1956), ch. iii. para 121.
44. Vism. ch. iii.
45. Vism, ch. iii.
46. The Path of Purification, translated by Bhikkhu Nanamoli (Colombo,1956).
47. The Path of Freedom, translated by the Rev. Ehara, Soma Thera, Kheminda Thera (Colombo, 1961).
48. The Hygiene Of a Quiet Mind, Trueman Wood Lecture delivered before the Royal Society of Arts, 1938.
49. S. v. 326.
50. See also M. 118, Anapanasati-sutta and Anapana samyutta, S. v. 311.
51. See chapter 13 , n 28.
52. See chapter 3, n 29.
53. See chapter 13.
54. See chapter 12, n 13.
55. M. 118.
56. See also Meditation Based on Mindfulness with regard to Breathing by Kassapa Thera (Colombo, 1962).
57. Dhp. 80; Thg. 877.
58. Dhp Com. ii. 141.
59. Dhp. 373, 374.
